Islam Post 9-11

For this week, we had to read The Clash of Ignorance by Eward Said, and Feminism, the Taliban, and Politics of Counter-Insurgency by Charles Hirschkind and Saba Mahmood. I noticed an overall pattern with this readings (and the ones of the week before) in which the authors were asserting that Islamic fundamentalism should not be looked at as how all Muslims practice the religion, rather extremism should be examined as a form of practice headed by certain groups that exist in all religions. Said criticizes Huntington’s illustration of civilizations as ’shut-down, sealed-off entities that have been purged of the myriad currents and countercurrents that animate human history…” He also does this by placing quotation marks around words such as ‘us’ and ‘them’, reaffirming this restricted view of the West (with a big W) “versus” Islam (with a big I). This illustrates that the generalization is two-fold; wherein laypersons as well as scholars generalizations about ‘both sides’ (for a lack of a better phrase).

Hirschkind and Mahmood also exhibit this overall unfortunate tendency to group together a large vast of practicing Muslims under one category that is portrayed as violent, radical, and reinforces the oppression of women. In this paper, however, the authors focus on the way in which “those in the West” (another generalization) view all Muslims as adherents and believers in the rules of the Taliban. Interestingly enough, this portrayal of Muslims that has been contrived through the Taliban image is only possible because of the rule of the Taliban in Afghanistan – an important historical event that could not have occurred without the aid of the United States. As was summarized in their article Feminism, the Taliban, and Politics of Counter-Insurgency, Hirschkind and Mahmood illustrate how continual supply of economic and military resources to specific extremist groups in Afghanistan and Pakistan has eventually given rise to the Taliban. Therefore, the image of Muslims today as fundamentalists could have only been established after US intervention aided extremist groups in their mission of becoming more powerful. Moreover, Hirschkind and Mahmood seem to argue the same idea that Sharf has in the past article that we have read. “…when it comes to Islam…the Feminist majority, can offer up an analysis of the conditions of Afghan women’s lives that barely touches on the context of persistent war, rampant ethnic and tribal violence, and the complete unraveling of Afghanistan’s complicated social fabric that resulted from the country’s incorporation into the Cold War.” This idea that scholars should study religions, civilizations, etc. within context and after examining the whole picture is an important that seems to be forgotten by many.

History of Islam: The Effects of History on Modern-Day Views

For this week, we had to read The Spread of Islam – an historical account of Islam and its movements) – along with Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World – a controversial look at modern-day views of Islam in accordance with important historical accounts. In both readings, I would assume the average Western reader was confronted with a completely new understanding of Islam as a religion like any other; one with extremism, fundamentalism, rationalism, diverse interpretations and assimilation. In his Following Muhammad, Ernst emphasizes that interpretations of Islam today in the Western world are absurd and stereotypical, asserting that one should not generalize the view of an extremist (Osama Bin Laden) across all those in the world who follow the Muslim faith. Moreover, he challenges the views of women as oppressed by pinpointing important historical factors in both Christian and Muslim societies and illustrating that women, in Muslim communities, were actually given the right to own land without any interference from a male figure before women from other traditions, including European communities.

Both Ernst and Ayoub (The Spread of Islam) touch on the importance of Islam in European development. Ernst presents this notion with more intention and force than Ayoub, who takes a more subtle approach. Nevertheless, both examine the spread of scientific and philosophical thought into Europe and seem to attribute much of this to the spread of Islam into adjoining continents. After portraying the importance of Islam in the evolution of European thought, Ernst asks again why the Muslim tradition has been historically (and until today) viewed in a negative manner?

Ernst suggests that this utmost hatred for Islam has deep-seeded roots and cannot be easily attributed to one underlying factor. He mentions that, historically, Christians had an ‘issue’ with another prophet after Jesus. Because of this, the interpretations that Christians provided about Prophet Muhammad’s life decisions (marriage, warfare, etc.) were riddled with negative stereotypes that, till’ today, Western society seems to uphold (Islamic religion was and is still viewed as a violent religion that oppresses women).

On a different note, Ayoub’s historical account provided in The Spread of Islam brings up a lot of questions (for me at least). Thinking back on the definition of syncretism, is it possible to say that through the spread of Islam many different ‘versions’ of the tradition developed through syncretism? Or is this simply the assimilation of different parts of  cultures, religions, traditions into one lifestyle (is this the essence of syncretism)? It was briefly mentioned that emperor Akbar (in India I believe) had attempted to create a new religion (‘Divine Religion’) by incorporating different parts of Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism into one religion. After his death, prince Dara Shikoh attempted to carry out this goal but was assassinated. It seems that in an attempt to prevent syncretism a man had been killed. However, syncretism seems to me at least a natural evolution of a mixing of cultures that is inevitable. If this is true, then is there any such thing as a ‘pure religion’?

Syncretism and Manichaeism

While reading Gnosis on the Silk Road, the similarities between Manichaeism, different sects of Christianity, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism where quite evident. Klimkeit consistently asserted that the prophet Mani “inserted” within Manichaeism different aspects of each of the above religions, while still maintaining a predominance in the Christian faith. It seems that Mani included so many different aspects of these religions in Manichaeism in an effort to make the religion more relatable in different regions that it had spread.

After Klimkeit’s informative introduction, and Valantasis’s compilation of different selections from the Cologne Mani Codex (CMC), I began familiarizing myself with the concept of syncretism. A simple definition of the word was provided by Colpe’s Syncretism [First Edition] provided in the Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd Ed.); it stated, “The term syncretism usually refers to connections of a special kind between languages, cultures, or religions”. When I first read this I was excited at the simplicity of the religion, however, I soon realized that many different “linkages” that have been “discovered” by scholars are mistaken for syncretism although they are actually various forms of religious differentiation.

In the end, three different syncretic developments were established; (1) a religion that is superimposed becomes more dominant than the older religion, which still survives, (2) the opposite can also occur (the older religion predominates), (3) a balance between the different components of each religion occurs. For the third possibility, Manichaeism was given as an example by Colpe. He then further expands on the originality of Mani’s doctrine, stating that Manichaeism was “a unique system in which previously existing linkages were interrelated in an entirely new and original way”. It seems evident that Colpe himself believes that Manichaeism is syncretic. The linkages between the different religious doctrines is astonishing and extremely obvious. However, I wonder if Manichaeism could fall under the subheading “addition” in Colpe’s Syncretism. Is Manichaeism a religion which embodies many different components and thereby is syncretic, or is it the combination of particular elements but not the absorption of all these elements (addition)? Is syncretism very similar to or basically the same as addition? What are the differences between the two, if there are any?

Tang China

Tang China was a time of extreme diversity and a seemingly mosaic of diverse cultures and religions that were all under extreme governmental supervision and control. Although different religious groups practiced freely in their own religious sanctuaries, they were still expected to assimilate to a certain degree. For example, the Uighurs were forbidden to were their cultural dress and were also forbidden to lure Chinese women and marry them. Along with that, the Uighurs were also forbidden to play the role of a Chinese person. It is assumed that such rules had been enforced to ensure the purity and longevity of Chinese culture and tradition. Strangely enough, different religious group could, with little interference, practice religious rituals etc. quite freely.

One such foreign religion was Nestorian Christianity. In the reading Missiological Reflections on Nestorian Christianity in China During the Tang Dynasty, I found it particularly interesting what different historians and missiologists thought of Nestorian Christianity and its “impure” teachings. Latourette suggests, “the Nestorians…in trying to clothe their faith in dress familiar to the Chinese, may have sacrificed in part its distinctiveness and defeated their own aim.” Immediately Sharf’s article came to mind; his notion examining religious doctrine in terms of social, cultural and spatio-temporal influences would nullify the significance of Latourette’s claim. To expect that Christianity is practiced in the same way with the exact same interpretations of the religion in so many different parts of the world seems naive. As mentioned in lecture, Western Christianity looks markedly different than Christianity in parts of Africa, in the Middle East, etc. Along with this, Bundy points out that Christian concepts and terms accepted today in the Western world, such as messiah and baptism, where actually adopted in early Christianity in an effort to make the Christian religion “comprehensible and acceptable within the Roman empire.” This illustrates that Western Christian terminology used today was actually adopted for the purpose of “clothing” Christian faith in Roman dress.

On a different note, after reading the story written by an examination candidate (as a warming-the-exam paper) I was mesmerized by the fanciful way of life during the Tang dynasty. The young man who lives through various different social roles, marries a prostitute, and in the end returns back to his “intended” role in society (as an official; like his father) was quite interesting. Especially intriguing for me was the interpretation of the story, one that suggests that social change is rare (in the prostitutes case) and normally one will end up in the correct status no matter what they encounter (the young man). A little earlier on in the reading I was especially fascinated by the freedom of women who so elegantly (at least in my imagination) would gallop on horses with beautiful draped clothing in an attempt to find a suitable husband. Just imagining such freedom, joy, and beauty was quite enchanting.

Origins of Buddhism in Dunhuang

Dunhuang was an oasis town along the Silk Road that supported a vast population. Trade was very popular and successful in this region. However, Dunhuang had also faced several different rulers and times of uncertainty. After being under the rule of various emperors, and also after taking into account the trade of not only goods but also cultural phenomena along the Silk Road, it is no wonder that art historians find it extremely difficult to pin-point the origins of Buddhism in the Dunhuang region. Buddhism as a religious practice nonetheless flourished and resulted in the Caves of a Thousand Buddhas. Under the influence of different rulers, the Caves of a Thousand Buddhas were not only extremely diverse in artistic features, but they also had undergone numerous remodeling in an attempt to adhere to the emperors beliefs. In this way, the socio-political situation of the Dunhuang region dictated Buddhist art in accordance with the ruling party. A major impact on Buddhism exerted by socio-political situations was the Islamic rule that concentrated on abolishing Buddhist artifacts, for Buddhist art was iconographic. Overall, Buddhism and the socio-political situation in the Dunhuang region both exerted some influence on one another, thereby shaping many historical artifacts that are studied today. Nevertheless, the question of the origins of Buddhism in the Dunhuang oasis town remains a mystery, one which may never be solved.

Buddhism

While I was reading this weeks articles I attempted to concentrate on our discussion of the study of religion and its numerous complications. It was increasingly difficult to do this knowing that Buddhism was preserved orally by monks who memorized its ideologies. Although I have been told this before, I find it extremely difficult to comprehend how it is possible considering the fallibility of human memory. And for this reason, and others voiced in the article Buddhism in Practice, I can’t help but doubt that all of Buddhist belief was manifested by Buddha and not actually constructed by many of his followers.

This construction of Buddhist dogma is evident in the evolution of the Hinayana and Mahayana traditions; two of which are very similar yet seem to encompass many different beliefs. It was very interesting to read how the Hinayana ‘disproved’ (in a sense) the Mahayana religion insisting that “it was created by beings who were demonic in order to deceive the obtuse and those with evil minds.” As a rebuttal to this claim, the Lotus Sutra was written and explained that the Buddha actually did not reveal the intensity and difficulty of Buddhism for he knew that actual Buddhist practice is too difficult to adopt for the majority. This was explained through parables of which seemed to concentrate on a wise and rich man (the Buddha) who unveiled the truth to those surrounding him that were unaware.

As I read through Xuanzang’s journey through India, I began to realize that his quest for an answer to the Buddhist religion, as a scholar, had changed dramatically when he became a convert “expressing his own religious feelings.” Then I remembered our discussion concerning insight and religious belief; is it fare to assume that Xuanzang had a better understanding of Buddhism as a scholar by believing and therefore partaking in religious ritual? Or did his immediate conversion make no difference?

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism is an Indo-European religion that is believed to be worshiped mostly by Iranians and is as old as the Hindu religion. Zoroaster (Zarathushtra) was the prophet who first introduced Zoroastrianism and it’s doctrines.

It was interesting to see the overall debate concentrating on the monotheistic (or polytheistic) nature of Zoroastrianism. It was proposed by Thomas Hyde that indeed Zoroaster believed in only one eternal God and that he preached these beliefs. However, this was contrasted by Anquetil du Perron’s translations of the Avesta and Pahlavi manuscripts which revealed that Zoroastrianism was polytheistic and each God was linked with specific ritual practice. This, though, was not the case for Zoroaster did truly believe in one God, Ahura Mazda, and six other great beings which Ahura Mazda had evoked. These six beings were indeed worshiped, as each one has an aspect of God.

While reading the translations of some Zoroastrian texts, I was most compelled by The Cow’s Lament (Yasna 29). I found myself asking if the cow was merely a symbol of helplessness in a world with pain and suffering and if so why was a cow ‘chosen’ to encompass this helpless being? Was it simply because many of the Zoroastrians, after migration, were farmers and herders? And then I wondered further why Zarathushtra was portrayed as weak, so much so that the cow did not express happiness although it was removed from a hostile environment.

The Study of Religion

When I first enrolled in this course, I didn’t take much time to think of exactly what would we be studying about religion and how would we go about studying it. I had read the course description and couldn’t wait to begin learning. However, after reading the complications surrounding studying differential phenomena, I realize that the study of religion isn’t as simple as reading and analyzing different doctrines.

Our first complication as scholars is defining religion. What is religion? Can we find one unifying definition that constitutes religious phenomena, functionality and necessity? Or does religion even serve a functional purpose at all and is it really an essential part of cultural unity? To try and tackle these concerns (along with others) we first begin by analyzing different ways religion has been studied in the past.

In the Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology (1994), it is mentioned that theorists today should examine more closely earlier anthropological documentations on religious concepts. Although some of the past texts are plagued by overtly racist notions, readers must understand the society these theorists were living in and overall ideas that surrounded them. What we can take from these texts is salient information and ways of studying religious doctrine.

Functionalism focuses on what things (such as religion) can do (their function) and the purposes they fulfill. In this view, one would focus on religion in a cultural society and its role in that society. As many have argued before, religion serves as an explanation for phenomena that is not understood amongst a certain people. A perfect example of this would be the ancient Egyptian Sun God, known as Horus. Horus was used to explain why the sun would rise every morning and set at night. Certain religious doctrines can also be viewed as the basis for rules and laws (ex. the 10 Commandments). Religion has multiple convoluted functions, and for this reason, functionalism is an important study of religion that sheds some light onto its constituent parts.

On the other hand, essentialism stresses the importance of a finite list of characteristics that are needed to define a group and determine what members belong or do not belong in this category. I find that, in essentialism, we may run into the problem of having a very basic, general/broad definition of religion that may not be useful in application. Rather, if in this definition of essentialism the ‘group’ is not religion, rather it is a specific religious doctrine, we may find more enriching information and possibly, through comparison, create a more concrete set of characteristics found in most religions and possibly deduce their functions in society.

As a scientist myself, I cannot help but find the study of religion through evolutionary theory (adaptational value) most intriguing. Of course this study of religion easily falls under functionalism, however, I feel it useful to discuss it separately since evolution has already explained so much about human behavior. In my opinion, religion is evolutionarily adaptive for it brings unity within culture and therefore allows for interaction amongst people (after all humans, along with other animals, are social beings). Through this study, we can begin to bridge together human cognition, behavior, and belief systems to scientific data.

Although I do find the combination of religious study and evolutionary theory fascinating, I hardly believe that evolution can explain religion entirely. Nor do I believe that functionalism or essentialism are sufficient enough to describe what religion is and what it constitutes. Rather, as pointed out in the Studying Religion web site, I find that those aiming to study religion should determine what they exactly want to uncover and through what techniques will they be able to achieve their goals.

These questions still remain; what is religion? Is it created primarily for functional reason? Or is religion not created at all, rather biologically rooted in humans through the process of evolution? On a different note, does religion constitute specific universal criteria that can be used to define it? My only reply for each and every one of these questions would be yes, for these questions are not static and independent, rather they are interrelated and can possibly, together, explain many aspects of religion and why religion even exists in human civilizations.

The Sogdians

While reading about the the several pieces of artwork that have been uncovered and linked to the Sogdians, I couldn’t help but recall our discussion in class about what constitutes art, and how the intentions for creating art have changed drastically. Today, art is considered a way of self expression; at times intended for pure joy (as a hobby) and at times for financial stability. However, I would imagine that the intention of artist living in ancient civilizations was not so simple. Art was used at times to tell a story, a historical account awaiting excavation. In other instances, art was used in ritual practice, as well as simple ornamentation. It is important to also take into account what was considered art in ancient times vs. what is considered art today. Did dance constitute art or only entertainment, or how about the circus; in what category did they fall? Moreover is it possible for dance and circus acts to fall in both categories? I believe it is simply way to difficult to create a concrete, objective definition/criteria of art and so maybe the discussion should not be art itself but the intention of art. Is art intended for money, entertainment, beauty, ornamentation, joy, or simply is art a ritualistic act?

On a completely different note, the Sogdian letters found by Sir Aurel Stein were so interesting and captivating that I began to wonder about these peoples lives. The women who begs to be returned to her husband, and if not her husband her mother; what was she feeling and why was she alone? Or how about the man who sends letters about the terrifying Huns and the loss of Luoyang and Ye. The terror depicted in his writing is enchanting. These letters were not only interesting in content, rather their intriguing nature comes from how old they are. I do not only wonder how these people writing the letters felt, but also how Stein felt when he had discovered them and more.

Finally we come to the Sogdians role in the Silk Road. Not only did they have so much to offer in the form of trade, the Sogdians also spread their language and religious beliefs along these trade routes. Manicheism, Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism were three religions that the Sogdians were partly responsible for spreading. Scholars believe that for each religion a specific language was ‘assigned’ for lack of a better word. By examining translations, etc. they have been able to attribute much of the translation of these religions (along with the art work, etc.) to the Sogdians.

The Hou Hanshu

After first familiarizing myself to the history of the Xiongnu by reading Chapter 4 of The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia, I became automatically fascinated by what I was reading. Every time I came across certain cultural rituals that I was completely unfamiliar with I couldn’t help but tell my sister, who was getting very agitated with me interrupting her studies, about what I was reading. It didn’t matter much that she disregarded my excitement and the content that I was delivering, it just sounded that much more exciting out loud. Reading about the offering made to Wundu (the princess) in exchange for a thousand horses made me feel as if I was watching a movie; as the movie unfolds I envision the story of a sad princess sitting by her lonesome writing a song about where she came from and her fruitless idea of returning. Equipped with this reading, I felt that I was ready to finally read the Hou Hanshu historical compilation of the Western Regions.

I cannot claim that all 35 pages of the Hou Hanshu was interesting in content, however, just knowing that I was reading historical accounts written by people living in that time period made the readings more captivating. While reading, my definition of  a historical writing fit well with the Hou Hanshou content presented to me. This can be seen in the regions that they assessed and the detailed information that was provided about them. For example, rulers and their successors were identified with detailed accounts about how they came to rule and the years that they presided over the country. They also presented introductory information about each region concerning its geographic location and, at times, writing about what they have to offer in terms of goods. However, the content itself was foreign to me and so I hesitated in completely acknowledging it as historical writing. What I am referring to are the ethnographic descriptions presented in this compilation.

Ethnography is a method used to provide descriptions of people in writing. It was strange for me to see that they referred to the Xiongnu as the ‘Northern barbarians’ or the “Northern savages” in much of their writing, using these three terms interchangeably. Equally odd was how they described peoples on the basis of their seeming strength, “They (Gaofu) are weak and easy to subdue” and “These people (Yizhi) are brave and hardy in combat” (The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu). What I found most interesting, although not directly representative of the view of the writer, was the chosen name for the Roman Empire, Da Qin (literally ‘Great China’). The author explains “The people of this country are all tall and honest. They resemble the people of the Middle Kingdom and that is why this kingdom is called Da Qin” (The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu).

Overall, the accounts cited in his compilation of historical facts actually reveal a lot more than just history and geography. Because they were written in this time period by those from the Han, these writings illustrate a cultural perspective noticed in the words that were used to describe the journeys. I do assume that even more than what I have stated in this blog is revealed about peoples culture and attitudes about different regions in the west, and that these perspectives can be noticed with a more in-depth look at the Hou Hanshu historical compilation.